Locational Boundary

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Thus enacting the boundary to the previous owner (Ethiopia), due to the agreement being the only recorded settlement between Somalia and Ethiopia. In 1969, through a military coup following the assassination of the former president Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, Commander Mohamed Siad Barre took power of Somalia. Boundary was drawn at a time when accuracy was not important. Example: river boundaries (banks, navigable channel, center, etc.) Some groups not represented when boundary was created. Example: Colonial boundaries Population increases or discovery of resources make accurate boundary important. Functional Disputes. Boundary cells were subsequently discovered in several regions of the hippocampal formation: the subiculum, presubiculum and entorhinal cortex. Firing of a boundary cell recorded in rat subiculum in 1 x 1 metre square-walled box with 50 cm-high walls. Locational Restrictions. 25 feet from any property boundary or, in the case of projects permitted by the DMME, 25 feet from the permit boundary (NOTE: All. There is now substantial evidence that locational and agglomeration influences can have a significant positive effect on innovation performance. Networking and boundary‐spanning activities are also increasingly recognised as important contributors to innovation success. (Redirected from Border cell (brain))
Boundary cells (also known as border cells or boundary vector cells) are neurons found in the hippocampal formation that respond to the presence of an environmental boundary at a particular distance and direction from an animal. The existence of cells with these firing characteristics were first predicted on the basis of properties of place cells. Boundary cells were subsequently discovered in several regions of the hippocampal formation: the subiculum, presubiculum and entorhinal cortex.Firing of a boundary cell recorded in rat subiculum in 1 x 1 metre square-walled box with 50 cm-high walls. A 50 cm-long barrier inserted into box elicits second field along north side of barrier in addition to original field along south wall. Left: Firing rate map, one of 5 colours in locational bin indicates spatially-smoothed firing rate in that bin (autoscaled to firing rate peak, dark blue: 0-20%; light blue: 20-40%; green: 40-60%; yellow: 60-80%; red: 80-100%. The maximum firing rate is 14.2 Hz). Right: path taken by rat is shown in black, locations where spikes were recorded indicated by green squares.
O’Keefe and Burgess[1] had noted that the firing fields of place cells, which characteristically respond only in a circumscribed area of an animal’s environment, tended to fire in ’corresponding’ locations when the shape and size of the environment was altered. For example, a place cell that fired in the northeastern corner of a rectangular environment might continue to fire in the northeastern corner when the size of the environment was doubled. To explain these observations, the Burgess and O’Keefe groups developed a computational model[2][3] (Boundary Vector Cell - or BVC - model) of place cells that relied on inputs sensitive to the geometry of the environment to determine where a given place cell would fire in environments of different shapes and sizes. The hypothetical input cells (BVCs) responded to environmental boundaries at particular distances and allocentric directions from the rat.
Separate studies emerging from different research groups identified cells with these characteristics in the subiculum,[4][5] entorhinal cortex[6][7] and pre- and para-subiculum[8] where they were described variously as ’BVCs’, ’boundary cells’ and ’border cells’. These terms are somewhat interchangeable; the critical defining functional characteristics of associated with the different labelling schemes are rather arbitrary and any functional differences in cells found in different anatomical regions are not yet fully clear. For example, neurons classified as ’border cells’ may include some that fire at short range to any environmental boundary (regardless of direction). Additionally, the BVC model predicted the existence of a small proportion of cells with longer range tunings (i.e., firing parallel to, but at some distance from boundaries) and few such cells have been described to date. In general, although the general predictions of the BVC model regarding the existence of geometric boundary sensitive inputs were confirmed by the empirical observations it prompted, the more detailed characteristics such as the distribution of distance and direction tunings remain to be determined.
In medial entorhinal cortex border/boundary cells comprise about 10% of local population, being intermingled with grid cells and head direction cells. During development MEC border cells (and HD cells but not grid cells) show adult-like firing fields as soon as rats are able to freely explore their environment at around 16-18 days old. This suggests HD and border cells, rather than grid cells, provide the first critical spatial input to hippocampal place cells.[9]See also[edit]References[edit]
*^O’Keefe, J.; Burgess, N. (1996). ’Geometric determinants of the place fields of hippocampal neurons’. Nature. 381 (6581): 425–428. doi:10.1038/381425a0. PMID8632799.
*^Hartley, T.; Burgess, N.; Lever, C.; Cacucci, F.; O’Keefe, J. (2000). ’Modeling place fields in terms of the cortical inputs to the hippocampus’. Hippocampus. 10 (4): 369–379. CiteSeerX10.1.1.19.7928. doi:10.1002/1098-1063(2000)10:4<369::AID-HIPO3>3.0.CO;2-0. PMID10985276.
*^Burgess, N.; Jackson, A.; Hartley, T.; O’Keefe, J. (2000). ’Predictions derived from modelling the hippocampal role in navigation’. Biological Cybernetics. 83 (3): 301–312. doi:10.1007/s004220000172. PMID11007303.
*^Barry, C.; Lever, C.; Hayman, R.; Hartley, T.; Burton, S.; O’Keefe, J.; Jeffery, K.; Burgess, N. (2006). ’The boundary vector cell model of place cell firing and spatial memory’. Reviews in the Neurosciences. 17 (1–2): 71–97. doi:10.1515/REVNEURO.2006.17.1-2.71. PMC2677716. PMID16703944.
*^Lever, C.; Burton, S.; Jeewajee, A.; O’Keefe, J.; Burgess, N. (2009). ’Boundary Vector Cells in the Subiculum of the Hippocampal Formation’. Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (31): 9771–9777. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1319-09.2009. PMC2736390. PMID19657030.
*^Solstad, T.; Boccara, C. N.; Kropff, E.; Moser, M. -B.; Moser, E. I. (2008). ’Representation of Geometric Borders in the Entorhinal Cortex’. Science. 322 (5909): 1865–1868. doi:10.1126/science.1166466. PMID19095945.
*^Savelli, F.; Yoganarasimha, D.; Knierim, J. J. (2008). ’Influence of boundary removal on the spatial representations of the medial entorhinal cortex’. Hippocampus. 18 (12): 1270–1282. doi:10.1002/hipo.20511. PMC3007674. PMID19021262.
*^Boccara, C. N.; Sargolini, F.; Thoresen, V. Y. H.; Solstad, T.; Witter, M. P.; Moser, E. I.; Moser, M. B. (2010). ’Grid cells in pre- and parasubiculum’. Nature Neuroscience. 13 (8): 987–994. doi:10.1038/nn.2602. PMID20657591.
*^Bjerknes, T. L.; Moser, E. I.; Moser, M. B. (2014). ’Representation of geometric borders in the developing rat’(PDF). Neuron. 82 (1): 71–8. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.02.014. PMID24613417.External links[edit]
*Rats know their limits with border cells, Neurophilosophy blog, December 22, 2008.Retrieved from ’https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boundary_cell&oldid=950548722’
Absolute and relative
location are two ways of
describing the positions of
people and places on the
earth’s surface.
Absolute Location.
From one perspective we
can identify locations as
precise points on the
earth’s surface by using
an arbitrary, mathematical
grid system of latitude and
longitude. The coordinates of
latitude and longitude are widely
accepted and useful ways of
portraying exact locations.
Relative Location.
Knowledge of locations
and their characteristics is
a key aspect of understanding
interdependence on local, regional,
national, and global scales. For
example, where are
schools located and why?
Do the locations anticipate
population growth or
decline?
Michael D. Sublett and Frederick H. Walk
Ask a real estate broker to list the threemost important determinants of thevalue of an urban dwelling or commercial site, and you are likely to hear thisamazingly simple answer: location, location,and location. Illinois is located in theMidwest, with only a thin line separating itfrom neighboring states. Like every otherfixed feature on the earth’s surface, theIllinois boundary really has two locationalcharacteristics. First, and most obvious, isits absolute location — a series of pointsprecisely definable in terms of some reference system such as latitude and longitude.Second, but equally important, is its relativelocation — a concept that requires us tothink of a boundary’s connections with itssurroundings. Such connections, of course,can and often do change with the passageof time.
ABSOLUTE LOCATION
The enabling legislation that Congresspassed in April 1818 making Illinois statehood possible included a lengthy descriptionof the boundaries that would define Illinoisas a distinct entity. That same boundarydescription found its way into the first(1818), second (1848), and third (1870)Illinois constitutions to confirm the area thatIllinois claimed. Only in the fourth constitution (1970), the most recent, did authorsfeel secure enough to omit the traditionalboundary recital. All those descriptionsbegin their counterclockwise circumnavigation of the state at the same spot — theconfluence of the Wabash and Ohio rivers(Figure 1).
Eastern Boundary
For most of its length, the easternboundary separates Illinois from Indiana, astate that entered the Union two yearsahead of Illinois. The boundary follows themiddle of the Wabash River north from themouth of the Wabash to a point approximately fifty miles north of Vincennes,Indiana, at which the southward flowingriver crosses the meridian that runs throughthe site of the old Vincennes courthouse.
That meridian, undeclared in the nineteenth-century boundary descriptions, lies 87 °(degrees) 30’ (minutes) west of theGreenwich Meridian. Oddly enough, from1818 until the United States adoptedGreenwich as its prime meridian in the1880s, the Vincennes courthouse wouldhave been only 10° 30’ West Longitude, asWashington, D.C., for decades marked theofficial prime meridian for America.
The Illinois-Indiana line stretchesstraight north from the Wabash meridianintersection to the northwest corner of theHoosier State, which means the lineextends a few miles out in Lake Michigan.At that corner the line turns eastward alonga parallel, 41° 50’ North Latitude, until itreaches the centerline of Lake Michigan.Irregular and conforming to the points thatconstitute the lake’s centerline, the easternboundary — where it separates Illinois fromthe state of Michigan — terminates wherethe parallel 42° 30’ North intersects the centerline. Most state maps fail to depict theeastward extension of Illinois into the lake,and thus most people fail to count Michiganamong Illinois’ neighbors.
Northern Boundary
From a point on the centerline of LakeMichigan whereIllinois, Michigan,and Wisconsincome together, thenorthern portion of theIllinois stateline headswesttowardIowa, following the42° 30’parallel. Onlya few minorwavers by thenineteenth-centurysurveyors keepthat westward pathfrom being a perfectly straight line betweenLake Michigan and theMississippi. Much more
2
significant, however, was the last-minuteshift in 1818 of the boundary from its intended location at 41° 44’ North to 42° 30’ North,a distance of approximately sixty miles. Thatdeviation from the boundary prescribed inthe Northwest Ordinance of 1787 increasedIllinois’ territory by nearly 20 percent, anarea roughly equivalent in size toMassachusetts.Fig. 2a —
Three Illinois Boundary
Close-ups;
Bull Island

Western Boundary
The northern segment of the Illinoisboundary has its westerly terminus in themiddle of the Mississippi River, marking aspot where Illinois touches the borders ofboth Wisconsin and Iowa. With somenotable exceptions south of St. Louis,Missouri, the western boundary of Illinoisfollows the midline of the Mississippi southto the Ohio River. As in the case of theWabash River, the states across theMississippi — Iowa and Missouri — sharethe river equally with Illinois. The notableexceptions south of St. Louis illustrate alegal precedent adhered to in the UnitedStates that involves meandering streamsserving as boundaries. According to the RioGrande Rule, a sudden shift in a stream’spath due to natural causes leaves behindany boundaries (international, state, county,etc.) following the stream. For example, theMississippi River has cut off several of itsold loops (meanders), separating Illinoisland from Illinois and Missouri land fromMissouri, but the separated tracts remainpolitically and fiscally linked with their original owners. Similar separations and alignments have affected the lower WabashRiver.Locational Boundary Dispute Ap Human
Southern Boundary
Kentucky inherited from its parent,Virginia, jurisdiction over the entire OhioRiver — not just the south half of the river.From Cairo to the Wabash, the southernlimit of Illinois is ’the northwestern shore’ ofthe Ohio. More specifically, the boundary isthe low-water mark on the northwesternshore. Kentucky defends its claim over theOhio as vigorously as a major brand ownerprotects its trademark. Illinois, as well asIndiana and Ohio, have largely failed in theirmany efforts to alter this peculiar way ofusing a river to separate two political entities.
RELATIVE LOCATION
Since statehood in December 1818, theIllinois state line’s absolute location hasremained essentially constant. Relativelocation — the significance of the boundaryvis-a-vis Illinois’ six neighbors as well as theperceptions that Illinoisans andoutsiders have of the boundary —has changed over time. Boundarydisputes alter our view of aboundary or a portion of it.
An Eastern Example
During the early 1970s,prompted by the now-famousgathering in rural New Yorkreferred to as Woodstock, promoters staged outdoor rock musicconcerts at numerous sitesaround the nation. Public officialssought to control the festivals, andin some cases, to prohibit them.In 1972 promoters of a proposedconcert in southwestern Indianaencountered stiff resistance fromjudges in Evansville and nearbyIndiana communities. Quick thinking by the promoters brought their ErieCanal Soda Pop Festival to a spot approximately twenty-five miles northwest ofEvansville. The site they chose covered anold meander cutoff on the Wabash River,just a mile or so south of Interstate 64(Figure 2a).
Bull Island, as locals had long called thecutoff land, lay east of the Wabash, butbecause of the Rio Grande Rule it remainedunder the jurisdiction of White County,Illinois. Festival promoters kept secret theirplans to locate at Bull Island. They hoped tobe so far into the preparation of facilitiesand ticket sales that no judge in Carmi, theseat of White County, would dare issue aninjunction forbidding the event. It appearsthat the shrewd promoters and the WhiteCounty officials recognized a splendidadvantage conferred by Bull Island’s cutoffstatus: land access to the five hundred-acresite lay entirely through Indiana (Figure 3).Therefore, state police and local authoritiesfrom Indiana would share with Illinois theresponsibility for solving traffic snarls andfor closing 1-64 as 250,000 franticfans tried to reach Bull Islandover the Labor Day weekend.Suddenly a backwater segmentof the Illinois-Indiana boundaryemerged for a brief but spectacular time in the regional,even national, spotlight. In Fig. 2b —
Kaskaskia Island

other words, its relative location underwenta great metamorphosis before the islandreturned to obscurity.
A Northern Example
Many Chicagoland residents speak disparagingly of their neighbors to the north,referring to the Illinois-Wisconsin border asthe ’cheddar curtain.’ Little do they realizethat had it not been for the territorialappetite of Nathaniel Pope, Illinois’ representative in Congress at the time of statehood, the northern boundary of Illinois would have been a westward extension ofan east-west line tangent to the southern tipof Lake Michigan. If Pope had failed to persuade Congress to move Illinois’ boundarynorthward to its present location, most ofCook County and all of DuPage, Kane,Lake, and McHenry counties would todaybe part of America’s Dairyland.
The displaced boundary was a sorepoint for several decades after 1818.Displeasure peaked in the 1840s asWisconsin sought to convert from territorialto state status. Many Wisconsin politicianscalled for shifting the boundary back southward. Agitators stirred up settlers in thenorthernmost of Illinois counties with talk ofsecession from Illinois and affiliation withthe emerging state of Wisconsin.Frequently, residents of those northerlyIllinois counties expressed a desire to makethe switch. After all, they felt a closer bondwith Wisconsinites than with the southern-born folk who still held sway in Springfield.Officially, the dispute ended in 1848 whenWisconsin accepted the limits Congressestablished for it at the time of statehood.Unofficially, some were still griping yearslater about the loss of eighty-five hundredsquare miles of land, the Chicago portageconnection to the Mississippi Valley, and thelead mines near Galena.
A Western Example
The Mississippi River has served as apolitical boundary longer than any otherIllinois boundary, having first been assignedthe role in 1763 when the French surrendered to Great Britain their claim to landeast of the Mississippi. Major rivers like theMississippi often became boundariesbecause they appeared early on explorers’maps; but they have several drawbacks asboundaries, not the least of which is theirtendency to meander. Of all the meandercutoffs affecting Illinois, the largest by far isKaskaskia Island, just west of Chester(Randolph County) and about fifty milessouth-southeast of St. Louis (Figure 2b).
From prehistoric times into the late-nineteenth century, Kaskaskia was not anisland but rather a place where theMississippi turned sharply westward in ameander that stretched nearly bluff to bluff.Inside this meander, near the eastern bluffand beside the Kaskaskia River — a left-bank tributary of the Mississippi — Frenchsettlers established the village of Kaskaskia,which became t

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